Short Stories- The Knife by Judah Waten Textual Analysis

Title -The Knife Author - Judah Waten Anthology - Spectrum One Ââ€" Narrative Short Stories. pg 133 Plot The Knife written by Judah Waten, is a short story about a young Italian- Plinio, who has immigrated to Australia from a ‘poor village in Calabria, in a very desolate part of Southern Italy. Plinio then starts to reminisce about the life he had back home and the reader learns that he lived in poverty and had a very modest life. It then goes on to describe Plinio walking home from work one night and he sees Mavis Keer- an attractive girl with a group of friends and her boyfriend Tommy Lawler. Tommy notices Plinio looking at Mavis and is jealous of him, his dislike for Plinio deepens because he is Italian, so Tommy decides to humiliate†¦show more content†¦This part of the story also makes a connection between Tommy and Plinio which that is that they both felt as if there dignity was humiliated in front of Mavis and they tried to out do each other but it all got out of hand causing them both to loose all of the respect that they had. For example Tommys friends all left and Mavis was bewildered at Plinio. Setting The setting for the story is in both Italy and Australia. The flashback is set in a poor Italian village and is described to be ‘a very desolate part of southern Italy. The setting is significant because it shows the life that Plinio had and contrasts the setting of his new home in Australia. In Australia Plinio lives in a small community with other Italians in North Melbourne. ‘They were in a single-fronted, two-story apartment house in North Melbourne where at least twenty other young Italian newcomers were crowded. The time the story is set in is in the 1950s, this can be inferred by the use of terms such as jukebox and milkbar, as well as the slang ‘garn, youre keen on that dago. Characterisation PLINIO v Plinio is the main character in the story and is viewed as the protagonist. He is a young man who is described to be a ‘A well knit, good looking young fellow of twenty-three. He is depicted to be very emotional and quiet due to the experiences in his life ‘he was A quietShow MoreRelatedThe Knife1115 Words   |  5 PagesEnglish  /  Short Stories- amp;Quot;The Knifeamp;Quot; By Judah Waten Textual AnalysisShort Stories- amp;Quot;The Knifeamp;Quot; By Judah Waten Textual AnalysisThis  essay Short Stories- amp;Quot;The Knifeamp;Quot; By Judah Waten Textual Analysis  is available for you on Essays24.com! Search Term Papers, College Essay Examples and Free Essays on Essays24.com - full papers database. Autor:  Ã‚  anton  Ã‚  24 November 2010Tags:   StoriesWords:  2398  Ã‚  Ã‚  |  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pages:  10Views:  1338Save essay in my profilePrintable

Everything for Sale Free Essays

Everything for Sale by Robert Kuttner: A Summary [Insert full name here] [Insert institutional information here] Everything for Sale by Robert Kuttner: A Summary In his book, Robert Kuttner (1999) tries to shake the dominant orthodoxy of laissez-faire economics, which he sees as the â€Å"natural form of capitalism,† by attempting to â€Å"reclaim a defensible middle ground† between when the market is â€Å"best left alone† and when it â€Å"needs help† (p. 5). Kuttner’s chief premise is that a mixed economy is necessary for a society that is civil and decent, a society where the economy is in optimum health. We will write a custom essay sample on Everything for Sale or any similar topic only for you Order Now For Kuttner, unfettered laissez-faire economy is in conflict with mixed economy, and that their opposition is essentially a struggle between the moderate but rational dissent — the call for a mixed economy — and the prevailing orthodoxy, or the desire to retain the economic status quo. He further maintains that a mixed economy is realistic precisely because there is virtually no escape from politics, especially in the economic landscape where the government can influence its course by adopting certain national economic policies. Kuttner readily accepts some notable contributions of the market system. For instance, he concedes that â€Å"[m]arkets accomplish much superbly,† and that â€Å"[t]hey offer consumers broad choices† (Kuttner, 1999, p. 11). Paraphrasing Adam Smith, Kuttner (1999) states that â€Å"the great paradox of the market is that the individual pursuit of self-interest aggregates to an efficient general good† (p. 11). He reaffirms the long-held belief that markets, when left alone, can lead to a vibrant economy. Yet, Kuttner eventually notes that the free market capitalist system is not entirely a rigid structure that has an aversion to changes. He believes that, â€Å"[f]or economies to operate efficiently, drastic change or abrupt disjuncture is the exception rather than the rule† (Kuttner, 1999, p. 12). Thus, markets may accommodate new prices, whether higher or lower than the prevailing prices. Old businesses may go insolvent, and new businesses offering the same goods or services may take their stead. Through the introduction of changes, the market is able to correct itself. In his book, however, Kuttner proposes something else. Kuttner seeks to dispel the complement notions that government interventions in the market are never successful and that markets are self-correcting and can thus work on their own. To reclaim the so-called middle ground, Kuttner offers detailed examples of how previous government interventions in the market did in fact work. He also writes about the shortcomings of the market for healthcare, the labor market, and the financial markets. By providing those examples, he then reduces the theoretical clout of contemporary laissez-faire economics, which he then deploys to draw attention to his position in favor of mixed economy. Kuttner further combines these examples with the premise that there are many kinds of economic and social goods that the market simply cannot provide without failing in one significant way or another. For instance, transportation and communication infrastructures are often financed by the government in association with other private and political entities. Though the funds are not entirely from the government, it cannot be doubted that the government has its share and that it is through its political efforts that the infrastructure projects are realized. Thus, for Kuttner, without the participation of the government in the economy, no matter how limited, the country will hardly be having the social and economic goods it now enjoys today. Clearly, â€Å"markets are not perfectly self-correcting† for Kuttner (1999) and, as a necessary consequence, â€Å"the only check on their excesses must be extra-market institutions† (p. 62), which is short of saying that the check is the government itself. Kuttner lists several areas upon which excesses have been committed. For instance, he states that even the seemingly innocent frequent-flyer program is guilty of frustrating shopping around for travel services by other airline companies since this program is designed to entice people to â€Å"stick with a favored carrier in order to earn mileage credits† (p. 261). To curb this, Kuttner (1999) states that there must be a regulated airline competition where â€Å"[r]egulators could set a zone of tolerable prices, to reflect actual costs more nearly† (p. 68). Another example is the case of the electric power market where the subsequent technological innovations in the first three decades of the mass availability of electricity led to the situation where â€Å"real prices rose dramatically between 1930 and 1933,† except that the â€Å"introduction of public power and federal regulation in the mid-1930s† brought back the â€Å"virtuous pattern of declining prices, technical advances, and increasing usage† (Kuttner, 1999, p. 272). Even the environment is not spared from the failure of a free market. Kuttner observes that the laissez-faire system has encouraged more spewing of pollutants, the manufacture of dangerous products, and others. Through regulatory measures out of broad public-policy goals, Kuttner believes that markets will have no choice but to cut down their waste discharges. The discussion cites other examples in order to illustrate the fact that the free market oftentimes finds help from the federal government. Kuttner (1999) concludes his book with a restatement of how nations â€Å"have now experienced more than two decades of the celebration of markets and denigration of government† (p. 361). Instead of continuing such prevailing notion, he reasserts that â€Å"the case for the market is much more of a mixed case than its champions insist,† especially since markets have become increasingly impulsive in breaching what used to be the province of rights. For Kuttner, the more these markets try to penetrate the province of inalienable rights in their relentless pursuit of profit, the more constraints from the government are needed. Otherwise, the whole foundation upon which the free market capitalist system stands will likewise become endangered. Reference Kuttner, R. (1999). Everything for sale: The virtues and limits of markets. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. How to cite Everything for Sale, Essay examples

Trade Investment and Economic Statistics †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Trade Investment and Economic Statistics. Answer: Introduction: Global Trade is one of an essential activity that undertakes between two nations in a modern world (Buckley Casson, 2016). It can be accessed not only by a wide range of product or service market but also accompanies competition through competitive advantage even though it is between countries like New Zealand and Australia. The international trade in these countries accompanies a total of 20-30% of GDP. However, the future growth rate of Australia and New Zealand is strong and opts to increase economic nationalism management through the continuous balancing of policies, globalization and technology. Australia and New Zealand has been in the trade business since a long time and aim at increasing the economic and social benefits through increase in the percentage of GDP globally (Hirst, Thompson Bromley, 2015). The following paragraph discusses the GDP of Australia through the percentage of exports. The data has been taken in 2106 from the World Bank data that shows the interconnectivity of trade integration (data.worldbank.org, 2016). The data is chart 2 is derived from variable exports from 1960 to 2015. The data is quantitative in nature with ratio scale. Also, this is a descriptive statistics data as only whole number of percentage is shown irrespective of probabilities. The data illustrates the percentage trend of exports through a line graph. The percentage is easy to depict the comparison of exports as a percentage of GDP through its yearly fluctuations. The data depicts that the future of trade amongst the driver globalization ranges from 10-25% which is making the country progress in trade for the coming years. The data can be refined with ordinal data where categories of exports have been defined and increase in the exports in the same category management. Also, in depiction a stacked bar chart would be helpful. The change in the trade has been seen in the previous years where Asian countries have caught hold of the market and continues to withstand against all odds. Australias top exports markets have been briefed in the table. The data in chart 3 is derived from Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade for Australia from 1995-2015. The data is categorical in nature. Also, there are no probabilities to be given in nominal scale The data illustrates the ranks of countries in Australias export markets. The information in the table highlights the impact of Asian foreign markets and the growing. China and Japan have been indifferently on the top position and has seen to takeover Unites States in the years stated (dfat.gov.au., 2016). There is no percentage, so the drawback lies in accurate comparison between countries amongst the distribution of export markets. Australia and New Zealand continue to provide technology with continuous innovation, efficiency and access. The Growth in demand for data highlights the change in digital world as adopted by countries. The data in chart 5 is taken from Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2016 for the data acquired till 2015 Internet Service provider (abs.gov.au., 2016). The data is quantitative in nature and is in ratio scale. The depiction of growth is shown through a line chart between the two countries that is simply contrasting. The volume of data can be depicted through probabilities. The data constitutes the data across years and the volumes of data that has increased in every following year. The change is more in New Zealand than in Australia across the years from 2011. The data could have been more effective if a broader of categories could have been made for the volume downloaded using internet. A bar chart with probabilities/ percentages would have been convenient. The total exports comparison have been manifested for Australia and New Zealand on the total exports with a GDP composition for the years 2016. The data for chart 11 has been taken from the article of The evolution of New Zealands trade flows by Zang (2009). The variables are exports and GDP composition of goods and services which are categorical nominal. As a result, there is no use of data spread as the largest segment covers services for both nations on Exports and GDP composition. The conditional probabilities for each type of good are shown in pie chart and the whole population of data is instance of descriptive statistics. Moreover, a pattern of factors illustrated would have been able to develop a comparison of types of goods and services exported in the Australia and New Zealand. The drivers of future trade have been broadly classified in globalization, technology and policies. However, a better analysis can be made by Next 5 years Top ranked drivers of change. There several drivers of change are demonstrated through broadly 4 drivers Technology, changing consumer preferences, policies and others in chart 12 (Chartered Accountants Australia and New Zealand, 2016). The data is ordinal in nature with percentages as probabilities for each change. The comparison between the drivers is tedious to recognize though comparable in nature. The data spread is vast which could have further formulated through an ogive (less than/ more than graph) and mean for a rational data. Moreover, a past trend chart or depiction could have further explained the deviation from actual percentages. At last, it can be concluded that the business in these areas are seeking to expand their market because of various reasons like spurred industrialization, reduction in costs, increased demand as well as liberal trade policies. On the contrary, the charts given in the assignments could have been rational with proper labeling and use of different techniques of statistics like descriptive statistics updated till a much closed data till 2016. The evaluation of past data could have even enhanced the predictions of the surveys. References 8153.0 - Internet Activity, Australia, June 2016. (2016).Abs.gov.au. Retrieved 24 August 2017, from https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/8153.0Explanatory%20Notes1June%202016?OpenDocument Buckley, P. J., Casson, M. (2016).The future of the multinational enterprise. Springer. Exports of goods and services (% of GDP) | Data. (2016).Data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 24 August 2017, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.ZS Hirst, P., Thompson, G., Bromley, S. (2015).Globalization in question. John Wiley Sons. The Future of Trade. Survey Results. (2016).Chartered Accountants Australia and New Zealand. Retrieved 24 August 2017, from https://www.charteredaccountantsanz.com/-/media/306686e57cc84420a6fb69e96f1c57c7.ashx. Trade, investment and economic statistics. (2016).Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved 24 August 2017, from https://dfat.gov.au/trade/resources/trade-statistics/Pages/trade-statistics.aspx Zhang, V. Y. (2009). The evolution of New Zealands trade flows.Reserve Bank of New Zealand Bulletin,72(4), 42-46.

The Struggle of Men During Vietnam War in ‘Goodnight Saigon’ Essay Example

The Struggle of Men During Vietnam War in ‘Goodnight Saigon’ Paper Goodnight Saigon is a song written by an American musician, Billy Joel. The song was written sometime around 1982 in response to the harsh treatment of the Vietnam War veterans. Joel tried to paint a picture of what it is like to go through the war in this song. The main theme of the song, the struggles of men in war, is depicted through simile, antithesis In this song, simile is used to compare the men drafted into war to other things with word such as â€Å"as† or â€Å"than†. To show the struggle of the men when they came to war, Joel mentioned that they â€Å"came in spastic like tameless horses† (5). Tamless horses’ is something that is wild and could not be controlled easily; therefore, he tried to imply that the men were unwilling and reluctant to go to war with this simile. A lot of the men opposed the war, which caused some of them to escape to another country, and being drafted into the war mainly relied on luck. Some of these men were forced to leave their family, friends and job back home and some of them felt that it was wrong to be a part of the Vietnam War but Once they arrived at the battlefield, their next struggle will be about facing their opponents. To them, their opponent was deemed to be â€Å"as sharp as knives† (31) and they struggled a lot to fight them. They struggled a lot with the unfamiliar environment and climate, and they obviously could not fight off the opponent who had been prepared for the arrival of these soldiers. Just like they barley had any experiences in their adult life, they lack skills in fighting the war and it left them feeling scared and confused most of the time. Some might think that war is a common event with the problems in today’s society. They hear about it everywhere – movies, news, parliamentary debate. But it has never occurred to them how a war actually affects or changes a person. It was said that a person returning from war will never be the same person as he left. In this song, Joel used antithesis to contribute some contrast regarding the character of the men before and after they went to war. For example, the first two lines introducing the: We will write a custom essay sample on The Struggle of Men During Vietnam War in ‘Goodnight Saigon’ specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Struggle of Men During Vietnam War in ‘Goodnight Saigon’ specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Struggle of Men During Vietnam War in ‘Goodnight Saigon’ specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Demonstrate Knowledge of Human Development Across the Lifespand Essays

Demonstrate Knowledge of Human Development Across the Lifespand Essays Demonstrate Knowledge of Human Development Across the Lifespand Essay Demonstrate Knowledge of Human Development Across the Lifespand Essay In this essay my discussion of the human development thought out the lifespan so the theorists I have chosen are Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, and Albert Bandura, john bowlby and also Vygotsky to look into the theories also relate them to the modern early childhood education these days. The four theories will be arguing about how the influences of the hereditary and the environment pr personal experiences that affects ones life path THEORIST AND THEIR THEORIES Erik Erikson is a psychoanalytical theorist who divided his theory to eight developmental stages throughout the life span (Berk, 2007). The eight stages are , Trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generative vs stagnation, integrity vs despair. If issues were to arise any of the stages were not dealt with well, it would influence the next later stages of development. Erikson also emphasized the wider social and Vygotsky was a social development theorist. Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural environment, where they interact and share experiences (Crawford, 1996). Vygotsky theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. This states three major themes he created. They are: inter/ intra psychological, more knowledgeable other (MKO), Zone of proximal development (ZPD). family relationships who surrendered the child to be more of an influence rather than biology. Jean Piaget was a cognitive theorist who had believed that children learn through adapting their world and since â€Å"he was trained as a biologist† (Pearson, 2007, p. 143) he showed humans how to demonstrate their intelligence through adaptation to the environment. Like Erikson, Piaget had believed that children pass through different stages of the development, but in their thinking. The four stages of development are : Sensory motor stage (birth – 2years) – knowledge develops through sensory and motor abilities, Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) – the child is learning to apply logical structures with languages, mental imaginary and symbolic thoughts, Concrete Operational stage (7-12 years) – the child has now a hold on logical perations that helps them to understand physical properties, Formal Operational stage (12 years and up) – children think deeply about concrete events and reason abstractly and hypothetically. Since Piaget was influenced by biological principles, he believed that humans were not seeking too much disruption in the children’s development. They were to be left on their own to explore and develop their own time and capabilities. John Bowlby believed that attachment had an evolutionary component; it aids in survival. The propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals [is] a basic component of human nature (Bowlby, 1988, 3). This theorist relates to my experience when my parents went Afghanistan for six months and I had two children to take care of and a whole house this was a hard job to me it seemed like I was a mother because the child would call me that im there mother. They got so attached to me and even now they are the same they tell me that a (big sister is like our mum) and I felt like I have been a mum for years. That my theorist. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES Vygotsky and Piaget are two obvious theorists who would disagree on a lot of each others’ theory. However, there are some few common grounds that they can meet on. Vygotsky and Piaget (Black Well Publishing, 2003) emphasized the importance of the early stages of development, where an infant uses body language instead of speaking verbally. Both Piaget and Vygotsky believe that development proceeds in stages, building on the previous stage, and how children think using different strategies at different stages. Their major difference is about a child’s development with or without a significant other. Piaget strongly believes that children discover for themselves and developing precedes learning. Whereas Vygotsky believes that children develop their thinking or learning abilities by the help of an adult, significant other or a more knowledgeable peer. By interacting with others, the child’s development will be further pushed to its advantage. Bandura and Vygotsky also share similar view points of approaches to learning; they both focus on the social – environmental influences and their study of the human’s inner psychological process such as language (Berk, 2007). Bandura’s heory focused more on how children develop through watching adults or teachers behaviors, especially with those that they identify with. We can connect that to Vygotsky theory about the zone or proximal development, where an adult has to actively interact with the child to further push their knowledge. This adult can be someone close like a peer or a caregiver. APPLICATION OF THEORIE S Piaget’s Preoperational stage (2-7 years) mentioned that the child has developed motor skills and develops a sense of self (Berk, 2007). They are able to think imaginatively, but still not able to think logically. In the centre, we can observe children play in the sand pit, constructing imaginary objects using simple equipments. Vygotsky theory encourages the teachers to collaborate with children in order to make it easy for them to have a meaningful constructive learning. This can also push parents to expose their children to a variety of social situations, because every interaction is considered to be a learning experience. John bowlbys theory of attachment can be easily seen today in an early childhood centre. A way for children to learn is through attachment with others. When children see other parent hugging there children they will watch and see then they will go and do the same In Erikson’s initiative vs. Guilt is where the child develops motor movements and coping skills, their curiosity is increasing. Parents who take time to answer their preschoolers questions can increase their intellectual initiative. But parents or caregivers who see their childrens questions as and annoyance may suppress their initiative and cause them to be too dependent on others and to be ashamed of themselves. Task 2 Influences on Human Development Children develop in many different ways at the same time. While physical growth and maturity are the most obvious signs that development is occurring, children also develop cognitively (mentally), socially, emotionally, and sexually. The influence is genetics. At this period, we relate infants to Piaget’s Sensory motor stage (Berk, 2007) where they get to learn their environment or come to know their world through their bodies and their senses. They dont understand their environment very well at first, but are born exquisitely prepared to explore and learn. They learn how to make movement, how to make sense of things, how to speak, and how to do other skills. All these developments need babies to use all senses: touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight. Development are mostly described as achievements in life significant to particular person, this can include crawling, walking or even first words of the infant. Though a development milestone occurs at a certain stage, everyone is different. An infant might have inherited genes that might prevent development of child, where other infants or toddlers might develop faster. When infant grows into early childhood, their thinking is still in process of developing, their ability to use language becomes more obvious, depending on their genes, they slowly develop while some are quickly excelling. We now enter Piaget’s Preoperational stage age 2-7 years of age; this is where childrens thought processes are developing, although are still considered to be far from logical thought, in the adult sense of the word, and unable to take the point of view of others. In middle childhood, the child is influenced by his or her family. School-aged children also need benefit from loving nurturance expressed by parents and caregivers. Children receive nurture from caregivers when caregivers give love and affection, spend time with them, include them in stimulating activities, and help them build their self-esteem. We can relate this to Bronfenbrenner Ecological system theory of the Microsystems the small, immediate environment the child lives in. This will include any immediate relationships or organizations they interact with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or daycare. The more encouraging and nurturing these relationships and places are, the better the child will be able to grow. This expression of love helps children grow in self-esteem and self-respect. Bronfenbrenner Ecological system can also link to when the child moves on to adolescence where he or she will be influence by their social circle. Erikson calls this stage to be Industry vs. Inferiority (Berk, 2007), where child learn to use methods and develops competence, skills and also they will learn to relate to their peers. Interaction with other children will then have to be a necessity to ensure development happens. An interchange of knowledge with a more capable other can be especially helpful, Vygotsky zone of proximal development theory (Berk, 2007). Another dimension in life that is influenced by social factors is young adulthood. This stage we move into Erikson’s Identity vs. Role confusion. How a person come to know how they see themselves in relation to the world. A young adulthood must struggle to discover and find his or her identity, while negotiating and struggling with social interactions and trying to fit in, and developing from right and wrong. If the person is successful in their young adulthood, they will now be focusing on attention to the system of production and management of material wealth, ecology, in their middle adulthood. This would cover Erikson’s theory of the Generativity vs. Stagnation or self-absorption, Career and work are the most important things at this stage, also their family. Attempting to work and produce something that makes a difference to the society. In Bronfenbrenner theory of the Ecological system, this person is part of the interlinking system which will affect the development of the child; it can either be directly if the person has children The last stage of life dimension is the late adulthood, where the person might be influenced demographically. Bronfenbrenner theory comes into this influence again, how they are affected in how they will now be living according to the law of the government, most would be using their pension and living in an old home stay area or lives in their own home far from there parents. Task 3 Reflection on Human Development Many theorists formed theories to explain how humans behave, think or develop intellectually, solve problems, and remember certain things. From studying these different types of theories can help us understand children and their development. I will be examining how knowledge of human development across the lifespan develops an adult’s understanding of children in an early childhood setting. Also, how this knowledge of human development across the lifespan can influence our practices with children in an early childhood centre. The like of Piaget (Berk, 2007) who is a cognitive theorist is only interested in how the brain works and how children learn more by leaving them alone to explore the things around them. We can relate this to Piaget’s sensory motor stage, a stage where infants’ senses are being fully used. Their senses of touch, sight, smell, taste and hearing can contribute to their increasing curiosity of objects and the things around them. If this was the case, in an early childhood setting, we would do well to provide materials, equipments and resources for infants to explore on. Making the environment safe for the infants learning is also essential. â€Å"In exploring the physical environment, children gain increasing motor and manipulative control and skill in using tools and materials safely†. Ministry of Education, 1996 p. 98) As Piaget stated, development precedes learning (Ebeck, 1996) In other cases, there are theorists who strongly believed that social factors were important for cognitive growth, scaffolding. Scaffolding is a temporary support system around that child’s attempts to understand new ideas and complete new tasks (Children’s developing minds) the purpose for this is that the child will be able to achieve higher developments by simplifying the task or idea, motivating the child and even modeling that can be imitated easily. If scaffolding is applied successfully children are in a better position to â€Å"convey and receive ideas, feeling and information in different cultural and social contexts†. (Ministry of Education, 1996 p. 96) Having this basic theory in mind, as teachers, Also, this can help children develop understanding and appreciate different view points of others (Ministry of Education, 1996). An additional theorist who could agree with having social factors to help further develop a child is Vygotsky, who came up with the zone of proximal development (Berk, 2007). He put emphasis on teachers to be always aware of the child’s intellectual development when they might need to be pushed further, a higher level than where they are now. This theory surely is related to scaffolding, but Bruner formed his theory based on Vygotsky zone of proximal development theory (Black Well Publishing, 2003) The zone proximal development is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. Interestingly enough, it is not only from adults that this knowledge can come from. In an early childhood setting, it’s good to take note of the child’s intellectual development and always looking out for ways to further push their development. Collaborating children with others can also help them develop within their zone of proximal development and â€Å"are able to participate in a range of social settings†. (Ministry of Education, 1996 p. 94) â€Å"A child’s learning environment extends far beyond the immediate setting of the home or early childhood programmes outside the home†. (Ministry of Education, 1996, p. 9) Bronfenbrenner, an Ecology of Human development theorist (Ministry of education, 1996) developed the environment systems which can either directly or indirectly influence the child. In this ecological system, we are directly influencing the child, because we fall under the Mesosystem as the school, early childhood centre. In the Mesosystem, that’s where the child learns to explore and discover new things, a saf e place to fully develop themselves. As a teacher or caregiver we are responsible for taking care of the children that are entrusted to us. This moves us to provide a well nurtured place where the development of the child can be enhanced. Also, the child might be developing relationships with adults outside their immediate family for the first time, so it emphasizes how we have to care and nurture the needs of the child. We can relate this to John Bowlby’s attachment theory. A child feels a special emotional relationship (Berk, 2007) that involves an exchange of comfort, care and pleasure. He also agreed with Piaget, of how an early experience in childhood can have an important influence on development and behavior later in life. By examining the characteristics of attachment, we can differentiate the kind of attachment the child has made. There are three, safe haven is when the child feel threatened or afraid, he or she can return to the caregiver for comfort and soothing. Secure base, the caregiver provides a secure and dependable base for the child to explore the world. Proximity maintenance is when the child strives to stay near the caregiver, thus keeping the child safe. Separation distress, when separated from the caregiver, the child will become upset and distressed. The way we care and nurture for the children in the centre will have an affect on how we view separation of a child and parent as they get dropped off, and how they socialize with strangers. If we find that the child takes a while to get separated with his or her parent, we leave give them time to settle in and feel comfortable in the place. We are also responsible for creating that safe haven in the centre for the children, especially when the child spends 11 hours, five days a week in the centre. Consequently, having knowledge of different theories will help us to better understand how children develop their understanding of themselves and those who are taking care of them. It helps us to open our views to a much wider idea of why such behavior is happening, or how a child might want to learn, why a child is finding it hard to separate himself to his parent and to the care of another stranger or even how the environment can have an influence on children. Just as the theorists themselves have their own opinions on development, this also goes for caregivers who will apply a different approach to learning. However, it’s all for the benefit of the child. Thus, having this knowledge from different kinds of theorists, let’s put them into application and continue to develop the child’s intellectual, physical and emotional needs. References massey. ac. nz/~alock/virtual/trishvyg. htm cyc-net. org/cyc-online/cycol-0304-bowlby. html http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/bandura. html http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/erikson. html http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/piaget. html

Bao Viet Insurance

In 2007, Bao Viet launched its Initial Public Offering and became a multi-business financial group. I.The mission, values and objectives of Bao Viet enterprise and the influences of stakeholders: To have a successful business, all companies have to have their own strategies. The first element is that the firm has to show the answer for the question â€Å"why do we exist?† or â€Å"what do we want to become?†. In other words, each company must have their missions or visions which are considered as a magnetic needle for all the people of company such as manager, workers or officers, etc to follow up. As a result, Bao Viet also has their own vision: â€Å"Bao Viet’s vision is to be o-ne of the leading financial groups in Vietnam in life and non-life insurance, investment, securities and other financial services† (Anon., 2008). To achieve this mission, the company wants to set up the high standard in every services that they undertake by innovations in productions and knowledge. In addition, by these activities, Bao Viet will also build up their reputation in Vietnam and have a long-term relationship with the customers, clients and business partners. All the enterprises need to identify their values which they can believe on it to secure their businesses. There are some values of Bao Viet for their goals and aims which is â€Å"innovation†, â€Å"growth† and â€Å"efficiency†. Principal of innovation for this company can be set up by receiving customers’ comments or feedbacks. After that, the company can renew their products or provide for customers a higher standard of service. Whilst, growth and efficiency can be assessed by basing on the business’s profits. For example, total revenue of the company in 1989 was VND 76 billion, after seven years, in 1996, this number increased rapidly at VND 970 billion. Bao Viet also should have some obvious objectives to follow. Bao Viet improves their standards of products and services to satisfy the demands of the clients and hope to have more customers and make more profits. For example, due to the success in the first six months of 2008, Bao Viet’s firm has their objective for the last six months: the business will strive to reach the total revenue of VND 3,150 billion in the whole of 2008. Next, the company should know and recognize the importance of stakeholders towards their business. There are three types of stakeholders. Firstly, we have internal stakeholders such as managers and employees who have immediate influences on the activities of the business. Managers will control all the management of the business, they decide to do or not a project so this position is very important for all the enterprises. Employees are also an major part of a business. They are the people who have the main influences on the success of a company. Employees join in the process of production directly, so if they are received high wages and bonuses to motivate them, the quality of products will improve enormously. On the other hand, if managers or employees do not do their works well, the business may get some loss of profits. The second one is connected stakeholders. Shareholders invest in the business in return of their dividends. In some cases, their investments can make them become the owners of the company if they have the largest ordinary shares of public limited company. In other words, shareholders can affect on the business by raising capital and even becoming the owners. Another part of connected stakeholders is banker who can lend the firm large amounts of cash to increase the capital. However, if the company does not make profits to repay their interest, bankers can confiscate the assets and make the enterprise go bankruptcy. Next, Suppliers who supply equipments for the company will expect to be paid and a long term relationship with suppliers can help the business to have more benefits. The last one is customers who need the products or services. For many enterprises, customers are people who decide what is produced or what price is charged. Their behaviors, feedbacks or complaints will influence on the success of the company directly. Thirdly, we have the external stakeholders. Government has a big position for the success of a business by making the laws and regulations which all the firms have to follow to do the businesses. Local authorities also can affect the business by changing local environment such as increase in road traffic. The next one is professional bodies, who want to ensure that the members of the company comply with professional ethics and standards, also affect the business. II.The extent to which Bao Viet company achieves the objectives of three stakeholders: For internal stakeholders such as managers, they are interested in the company’s continuation and growth. They also have some individual interests and goals, for example, a safe and comfortable working environment and skill and career development, etc. Therefore, to achieve the objectives of internal stakeholders, the company needs to increase the revenue and improve the standards of working environment. Bao Viet was held up in 1964, they have 43 years of foundation and growth. In some first years, their revenue only raised a little, turnovers at that time was VND 800,000 with total assets of VND 900,000 because they only served for some state-owned customers. Now, Bao Viet has widened their nationwide network and developed the business to overseas market. In addition, the income also increase enormously: Its investment income in 2003 reached VND 512 billion from a total portfolio of VND 8,114 billion. These great advances make the company become one of the biggest 25 enterprises in Vietnam. Moreover, on 31st May 2007, Bao Viet was listed on the stock market to sell their shares to the public. After this, the chartered capital of Bao Viet increased at VND 6,800 billion. Bao Viet has 40,000 dedicated agents and 5,000 employees with experienced experts and young, well-trained staff so this company always has a good environment for people to work. Bao Viet also achieves in the services for customers who represent for the connected stakeholders. Customers always want to receive the best products or services for their demands. They can complain or give comments to the business about the products and their satisfaction is very important for the company’s success. As a result, the firm always needs to listen to the customers’ opinions, this will make major influences on the new products or services in terms of quality or price. Firstly, Bao Viet strategy bases on the customer orientation which means the customers will become the centre of all activities. The company has taken over the feedback of customers and pay a large amount of money for the customers who bought their insurance. For example, Anh N of Vietnamnet (2004) said that Bao Viet had paid VND 1,000 billion for people who had got accidents or disasters in 2003. Bao Viet also issued more types of insurance such as personal insurance, river boat insurance or fishing boat insurance, etc to serve the customers’ demands. These types will help the customers in many careers to have more choices and make more benefits for the company. Secondly, because of a huge system of nationwide network over the country, Bao Viet has some difficulties to keep contacting with the clients in some parts of Vietnam. Therefore, the company decided to establish more offices and more officers to improve the quality of services for the customers : â€Å"Bao Viet Da Nang built four regional offices in Thanh Khe, Lien Chieu, Hoa Vang, Son Tra – Ngu Hanh Son and a line-up of 120 people who are willing to guide, provide insurance services for the clients everywhere at every time.† (Ha T., 2004). Moreover, Bao Viet associated with some company to develop the quality of services for the customers such as HSBC Vietnam company. By this communication, Bao Viet might provide products for their customers through branch houses of HSBC Vietnam company. Overall, Bao Viet is improving more and more their system of products and services to serve the customers. Besides the benefits for internal and connected stakeholders, Bao Viet also satisfies the requirement of government, an external stakeholder. Government has some main roles such as passing laws to protect workers and customers, collecting taxes or subsidizing activities, etc. Mr Hoan, Chief executive officer of Bao Viet headquarter stated that in 2003, Bao Viet paid VND 189 billion for the government, increased by 8.2% in comparison with the amount in 2002 (Anh N., 2004). Therefore, Bao Viet achieved the responsibility with the government. Meanwhile, the expansion of Bao Viet will increase the chances for people to have jobs, this activity will help the government to solve the problem of unemployment. In conclusion, Bao Viet succeed to achieve the objectives of all the stakeholders which includes internal stakeholder, connected stakeholder and external stakeholder. III.The responsibilities of the company and strategies employed to meet objectives of stakeholders: The first responsibility of the company is social responsibility. Bao Viet has some responsibilities for the government. For example, Bao Viet must pay tax for their income, in other words, the company must follow all the regulations and laws which the government have issued. Besides, they also make benefits for the local communities such as reducing the ratio of unemployed people in the area. Secondly, we have the ethics and business. Obeying the law is that the company must follow the laws and regulations to do the business. Furthermore, the company has to respect the rights of competitors. The firm has not to criticize or attack the rights of competitors or do everything which can harm the competitors. Business ethics also includes that the organization should protect the employees and consumer from danger of the business. In addition, the company also must not do some illegal activities such as bribery or gifts. The next one is the management responsibilities. The company should have good relationship with all their stakeholders. Now, Bao Viet has their IPO, so they will have more shareholders. In addition, the business has the responsibility to maximize the profits for shareholders. As a result, they will continue to invest in the company and the business will make more benefits. Second one is the employees who keeps the organization in operational existence. They contribute for the company by joining in the production directly so their position is also very important and they should be received a suitable treatment in terms of wages or salary, bonuses, etc. Moreover, the firm also should give the employees a coherent career and a training structure to make them become better and work more efficiently. Meanwhile, the company needs to make a good environment for workforce’s lifestyle and make a good condition for them to express all their talent. Next, I will talk about the responsibility for customers. For Bao Viet, the enterprise has to listen to every feedbacks of the customers, develop the quality of services and keep contacting with them to provide enough information which the customers want to know. For the suppliers, the firm must not delay payment or use the power unscrupulously. In addition, having a long-term relationship or giving new supplier the chance to win new business also makes benefits for both sides. The business also have some responsibilities for the competitors such as the laws of competition about fair trading, monopolies or mergers, etc. The last one is responsibilities for the Community. Each area has their own social and ethical values, so that the firm has to respect these values. Moreover, when the Community needs more capital to hold up an event or charity, the business also should sponsor for them. This way will also make benefits for the company because they have a chance to spread their brand. In addition, the last one is that the enterprise has to respond to complaints for local residents. In this part, I will give some strategies which Bao Viet has followed to meet the objectives of stakeholders. The first strategy is to become o ¬ne of the leading financial groups which has an ability of international competitiveness, providing a wide array of financial services from life and non-life insurance, securities, investment to financial services. This expansion will help the business to widen the market for more consumers. The second one is to become the corporation which is the most popular in Vietnam towards the customers. This strategy will be useful and important for a customer orientation company. Next, the company wants to â€Å"become an organization that can maintain and enhance the â€Å"Prestige† â€Å"Reputation† and â€Å"Honesty and Integrity†, having the â€Å"Loyalty† of customers, and BAOVIET members† (Business Environment textbook, 2008). All of the strategies are based on three gold principles of â€Å"innovation†, â€Å"growth† and â€Å"efficiency†. Reference http://www.vietnamnet.vn/xahoi/doisong/2004/10/340859/ Bao Viet Insurance In 2007, Bao Viet launched its Initial Public Offering and became a multi-business financial group. I.The mission, values and objectives of Bao Viet enterprise and the influences of stakeholders: To have a successful business, all companies have to have their own strategies. The first element is that the firm has to show the answer for the question â€Å"why do we exist?† or â€Å"what do we want to become?†. In other words, each company must have their missions or visions which are considered as a magnetic needle for all the people of company such as manager, workers or officers, etc to follow up. As a result, Bao Viet also has their own vision: â€Å"Bao Viet’s vision is to be o-ne of the leading financial groups in Vietnam in life and non-life insurance, investment, securities and other financial services† (Anon., 2008). To achieve this mission, the company wants to set up the high standard in every services that they undertake by innovations in productions and knowledge. In addition, by these activities, Bao Viet will also build up their reputation in Vietnam and have a long-term relationship with the customers, clients and business partners. All the enterprises need to identify their values which they can believe on it to secure their businesses. There are some values of Bao Viet for their goals and aims which is â€Å"innovation†, â€Å"growth† and â€Å"efficiency†. Principal of innovation for this company can be set up by receiving customers’ comments or feedbacks. After that, the company can renew their products or provide for customers a higher standard of service. Whilst, growth and efficiency can be assessed by basing on the business’s profits. For example, total revenue of the company in 1989 was VND 76 billion, after seven years, in 1996, this number increased rapidly at VND 970 billion. Bao Viet also should have some obvious objectives to follow. Bao Viet improves their standards of products and services to satisfy the demands of the clients and hope to have more customers and make more profits. For example, due to the success in the first six months of 2008, Bao Viet’s firm has their objective for the last six months: the business will strive to reach the total revenue of VND 3,150 billion in the whole of 2008. Next, the company should know and recognize the importance of stakeholders towards their business. There are three types of stakeholders. Firstly, we have internal stakeholders such as managers and employees who have immediate influences on the activities of the business. Managers will control all the management of the business, they decide to do or not a project so this position is very important for all the enterprises. Employees are also an major part of a business. They are the people who have the main influences on the success of a company. Employees join in the process of production directly, so if they are received high wages and bonuses to motivate them, the quality of products will improve enormously. On the other hand, if managers or employees do not do their works well, the business may get some loss of profits. The second one is connected stakeholders. Shareholders invest in the business in return of their dividends. In some cases, their investments can make them become the owners of the company if they have the largest ordinary shares of public limited company. In other words, shareholders can affect on the business by raising capital and even becoming the owners. Another part of connected stakeholders is banker who can lend the firm large amounts of cash to increase the capital. However, if the company does not make profits to repay their interest, bankers can confiscate the assets and make the enterprise go bankruptcy. Next, Suppliers who supply equipments for the company will expect to be paid and a long term relationship with suppliers can help the business to have more benefits. The last one is customers who need the products or services. For many enterprises, customers are people who decide what is produced or what price is charged. Their behaviors, feedbacks or complaints will influence on the success of the company directly. Thirdly, we have the external stakeholders. Government has a big position for the success of a business by making the laws and regulations which all the firms have to follow to do the businesses. Local authorities also can affect the business by changing local environment such as increase in road traffic. The next one is professional bodies, who want to ensure that the members of the company comply with professional ethics and standards, also affect the business. II.The extent to which Bao Viet company achieves the objectives of three stakeholders: For internal stakeholders such as managers, they are interested in the company’s continuation and growth. They also have some individual interests and goals, for example, a safe and comfortable working environment and skill and career development, etc. Therefore, to achieve the objectives of internal stakeholders, the company needs to increase the revenue and improve the standards of working environment. Bao Viet was held up in 1964, they have 43 years of foundation and growth. In some first years, their revenue only raised a little, turnovers at that time was VND 800,000 with total assets of VND 900,000 because they only served for some state-owned customers. Now, Bao Viet has widened their nationwide network and developed the business to overseas market. In addition, the income also increase enormously: Its investment income in 2003 reached VND 512 billion from a total portfolio of VND 8,114 billion. These great advances make the company become one of the biggest 25 enterprises in Vietnam. Moreover, on 31st May 2007, Bao Viet was listed on the stock market to sell their shares to the public. After this, the chartered capital of Bao Viet increased at VND 6,800 billion. Bao Viet has 40,000 dedicated agents and 5,000 employees with experienced experts and young, well-trained staff so this company always has a good environment for people to work. Bao Viet also achieves in the services for customers who represent for the connected stakeholders. Customers always want to receive the best products or services for their demands. They can complain or give comments to the business about the products and their satisfaction is very important for the company’s success. As a result, the firm always needs to listen to the customers’ opinions, this will make major influences on the new products or services in terms of quality or price. Firstly, Bao Viet strategy bases on the customer orientation which means the customers will become the centre of all activities. The company has taken over the feedback of customers and pay a large amount of money for the customers who bought their insurance. For example, Anh N of Vietnamnet (2004) said that Bao Viet had paid VND 1,000 billion for people who had got accidents or disasters in 2003. Bao Viet also issued more types of insurance such as personal insurance, river boat insurance or fishing boat insurance, etc to serve the customers’ demands. These types will help the customers in many careers to have more choices and make more benefits for the company. Secondly, because of a huge system of nationwide network over the country, Bao Viet has some difficulties to keep contacting with the clients in some parts of Vietnam. Therefore, the company decided to establish more offices and more officers to improve the quality of services for the customers : â€Å"Bao Viet Da Nang built four regional offices in Thanh Khe, Lien Chieu, Hoa Vang, Son Tra – Ngu Hanh Son and a line-up of 120 people who are willing to guide, provide insurance services for the clients everywhere at every time.† (Ha T., 2004). Moreover, Bao Viet associated with some company to develop the quality of services for the customers such as HSBC Vietnam company. By this communication, Bao Viet might provide products for their customers through branch houses of HSBC Vietnam company. Overall, Bao Viet is improving more and more their system of products and services to serve the customers. Besides the benefits for internal and connected stakeholders, Bao Viet also satisfies the requirement of government, an external stakeholder. Government has some main roles such as passing laws to protect workers and customers, collecting taxes or subsidizing activities, etc. Mr Hoan, Chief executive officer of Bao Viet headquarter stated that in 2003, Bao Viet paid VND 189 billion for the government, increased by 8.2% in comparison with the amount in 2002 (Anh N., 2004). Therefore, Bao Viet achieved the responsibility with the government. Meanwhile, the expansion of Bao Viet will increase the chances for people to have jobs, this activity will help the government to solve the problem of unemployment. In conclusion, Bao Viet succeed to achieve the objectives of all the stakeholders which includes internal stakeholder, connected stakeholder and external stakeholder. III.The responsibilities of the company and strategies employed to meet objectives of stakeholders: The first responsibility of the company is social responsibility. Bao Viet has some responsibilities for the government. For example, Bao Viet must pay tax for their income, in other words, the company must follow all the regulations and laws which the government have issued. Besides, they also make benefits for the local communities such as reducing the ratio of unemployed people in the area. Secondly, we have the ethics and business. Obeying the law is that the company must follow the laws and regulations to do the business. Furthermore, the company has to respect the rights of competitors. The firm has not to criticize or attack the rights of competitors or do everything which can harm the competitors. Business ethics also includes that the organization should protect the employees and consumer from danger of the business. In addition, the company also must not do some illegal activities such as bribery or gifts. The next one is the management responsibilities. The company should have good relationship with all their stakeholders. Now, Bao Viet has their IPO, so they will have more shareholders. In addition, the business has the responsibility to maximize the profits for shareholders. As a result, they will continue to invest in the company and the business will make more benefits. Second one is the employees who keeps the organization in operational existence. They contribute for the company by joining in the production directly so their position is also very important and they should be received a suitable treatment in terms of wages or salary, bonuses, etc. Moreover, the firm also should give the employees a coherent career and a training structure to make them become better and work more efficiently. Meanwhile, the company needs to make a good environment for workforce’s lifestyle and make a good condition for them to express all their talent. Next, I will talk about the responsibility for customers. For Bao Viet, the enterprise has to listen to every feedbacks of the customers, develop the quality of services and keep contacting with them to provide enough information which the customers want to know. For the suppliers, the firm must not delay payment or use the power unscrupulously. In addition, having a long-term relationship or giving new supplier the chance to win new business also makes benefits for both sides. The business also have some responsibilities for the competitors such as the laws of competition about fair trading, monopolies or mergers, etc. The last one is responsibilities for the Community. Each area has their own social and ethical values, so that the firm has to respect these values. Moreover, when the Community needs more capital to hold up an event or charity, the business also should sponsor for them. This way will also make benefits for the company because they have a chance to spread their brand. In addition, the last one is that the enterprise has to respond to complaints for local residents. In this part, I will give some strategies which Bao Viet has followed to meet the objectives of stakeholders. The first strategy is to become o ¬ne of the leading financial groups which has an ability of international competitiveness, providing a wide array of financial services from life and non-life insurance, securities, investment to financial services. This expansion will help the business to widen the market for more consumers. The second one is to become the corporation which is the most popular in Vietnam towards the customers. This strategy will be useful and important for a customer orientation company. Next, the company wants to â€Å"become an organization that can maintain and enhance the â€Å"Prestige† â€Å"Reputation† and â€Å"Honesty and Integrity†, having the â€Å"Loyalty† of customers, and BAOVIET members† (Business Environment textbook, 2008). All of the strategies are based on three gold principles of â€Å"innovation†, â€Å"growth† and â€Å"efficiency†. Reference http://www.vietnamnet.vn/xahoi/doisong/2004/10/340859/

Insurance in the GCC Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Insurance in the GCC - Research Paper Example Although economic growth in this region is very high, the insurance sector has fallen behind drastically. According to him, the opportunities for different local and international insurance company are very high, which will be accounted for increased competition, and also a challenging business environment (Ashcroft, 2013). There is also an expectation that the region’s insurance sector will also mature structurally in way of going forwards. Apart from this, in line with positive regulatory developments, there are constant efforts by some of the key insurance players towards achieving greater operational scale and functional efficiency. These companies want to take the first mover advantage. There are huge amount of opportunity in the GCC Insurance sector with the bigger organizations in the insurance market getting more and larger in terms of operational volume as well as the penetration in different parts of the world, and in that way leading to the marginalization of smalle r companies. The GCC Insurance Industry Outlook: With the untapped open market in place many leading insurance sectors are now looking forward for setting up their business unit in GCC. The opportunity of untapped market is huge and therefore every organization is looking for taking the â€Å"first mover advantage†. According to the report published by Alpen Capital (2013), the projective growth rate of the insurance industry in the Gulf region is 18.1% (CAGR) between the time periods of 2012-2017. According to their estimation the market value of the insurance industry in the gulf region will reach up to us $ 37.5 billion. Out of this, the life insurance segment will contribute US $ 2.4 billion and non life will account for US $ 35.1 billion. The growth in the non life part is more due to strong impetus of construction and infrastructure industries. An enormous portion of oil revenues in the GCC countries is being moved to the development of the non-oil segment in order to s upport the economic diversification of the sector. As a result, there is strong momentum in the construction sector. This momentum will help the region’s non-life insurance segment. Moreover, higher infiltrations of medical insurance and constant growth in the new vehicle sales are also likely to help the growth in the motor insurance sector which in turn will aid the segment’s growth. The rate of insurance penetration in GCC is also likely to go up from 1.1% in 2012 to 2% by the end of 2017. The industry growth rate is comfortably exceeds the pace of GDP expansion in this sector, Non-life insurance growth in the line of increasing infrastructure development and more vehicle sales, is likely to surge from 0.9% to 1.9% during the period, and will be the key behind the growth of this sector in the GCC region. UAE (United Arab Emirates) and Saudi Arabia are the two largest insurance market at present in GCC; the trend is such that there is every possibility that Saudi Ara bia may overtake the United Arab Emirates (UAE) as the largest insurance market in GCC with coming years. (Alpen Capital, 2013). Key Growth factor of Insurance Industry

Evaluating Sociological Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Evaluating Sociological Theories - Essay Example He emphasized on the moral role of education in the socialization of the children for them to become a part of the society. The main purpose of education according to Durkheim was the development of social solidarity. This was carried out in a way that the collective culture was taught to the children of the society in school. The role was to create a bridge between individualism and collective sharing. For this Durkheim explains two forms of solidarity: mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. Mechanic solidarity was a characteristic of pre-industrial societies with the absence of division of labor. On the other hand organic solidarity was a part of industrial societies where there is division of labor and interdependence on each other. (www.sociology.org.uk ) Durkheim further elaborates that education has two basic functions. Firstly, it is the education itself to train the students for their future roles. The other role is to create social solidarity and cohesion in the socie ty. Functionalism as a sociological perspective evolved mostly in America. It was developed by American Sociologists like Talcott Parsons and Davis and Moore between the 1930s and 1960s. The central role in their works was to identify the role of education in the society. ... This is seen to be because the adult roles that are seen to be the most functionally important must be filled by the most able, capable and competent members of society. Talent as we all know are unequally distributed and different people have different areas and different levels of expertise. Therefore, the most talented people are allocated to the most important roles in the society- roles which are extremely important for its proper functioning. This leads to the idea of meritocratic society. The importance of a particular position or job in the society depends on the level of expertise and the skills and length of time dedicated to gain that expertise. For example a brain surgeon needs more skill and time required to train for their task as compared to a nurse. Therefore, the amount of work put in should get an equitable reward (Kirby, 2000). Functionalists have been criticized relating to their explanations of education. Firstly, they are criticized for their assumption that all the children are on level ground. However, this is not the case as some children enter the school with a strong background equipped with cultural capital which includes language, confidence and manners. Children are â€Å"sifted and sorted† in schools that may take little account of their levels of intelligence. In this respect, there seems to be no guarantee that the people who achieve the highest levels of qualification are necessarily the â€Å"most able† in our society. The best may not fit into the system of education but it does not mean that they are not capable enough. Prominent examples can be of Albert Einstein and Thomas Alva Edison.

Edgar Allan Poes Influence on Literature Essay Example for Free

Edgar Allan Poes Influence on Literature Essay Edgar Allan Poe’s influence on American literature was nothing short of great; not only was he the creator of the detective story and the horror thriller, but he also influenced many great writers, among those William Faulkner and Fyodor Dostoevsky. While Poe is best known for his horror thrillers, being the creator of that particular genre, he has also fashioned two other literary genres, like the detective and the science fiction genre. Throughout his life, Poe read, reviewed, and critiqued many books for various magazines and papers. Poe did not hesitate to attack what he deemed inferior. â€Å"Is purely too imbecile to merit an extended critique,† he once wrote of a novel. Because of his readiness to attack what he believed to be unworthy, Poe helped set high standards for American literature (Meltzer 64). Poe had an influence on both American and non-American writers, like William Faulkner, and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Faulkner, who is considered to be the South’s most renowned novelist, will be forever linked to Poe. Both writers were fanatically obsessed with what made mankind good and what made it evil. Their writings also dealt with common elements, like narcissistic doubling, vengeance, and violence (Wyatt-Brown). In Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury, the incestuous relationship between two of the characters, Quentin and Caddy Compson, draws a parallel between Poe’s own incestuous relationship with his first cousin, Virginia (Wyatt-Brown). Fyodor Dostoevsky, a Russian novelist, was also greatly influenced by Poe. Dostoevsky’s novel, Crime and Punishment depicts a man who commits murder and becomes increasingly guilty throughout the novel because of it, until he is finally urged to confess by the woman he loves. The novel’s plot was prefigured in Poe’s A Tell Tale Heart, which portrays a man who commits a murder and is driven insane by the guilt as he hears the heart beating from underneath the floorboards, where he had stored the body. Dostoevsky once declared that Poe: â€Å"almost always takes the most exceptional reality and endows it with such details that the reader is convinced of its possibility, of its reality, when objectively the event or situation is impossible. † (Wyatt-Brown) Dostoevsky’s opinion on the matter relates exceptionally with Poe’s A Tell Tale Heart. One would not believe the story to hold even a semblance of reality, as Poe has infused the short story with the most absurd of details that make it so obviously impossible; however, while reading one becomes entirely immersed in the story that it does not seem so absurd anymore. According to Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, writer of the famous detective series, Sherlock Holmes, Edgar Allan Poe is the father of the detective story (Meltzer 83). Doyle was of the opinion that Poe had covered the genre’s limits so completely, that he could not see how his followers could find any fresh ground of their own (83). Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s very own character, Sherlock Holmes, was inspired by C. Auguste Dupin, the detective of the stories who began the detective genre (Binns 114). Among many of Edgar Allan Poe’s writings is The Murders in the Rue Morgue, one of the Dupin stories. This story was the first ever detective story to be printed, which made it the archetype for the modern detective story (Meltzer 83). Although The Murders in the Rue Morgue was the first ever detective story to ever see print, Poe did incorporate new elements into other works that writers of detective fiction still make use of. For example, in The Purloined Letter and Thou Art the Man, Poe introduced post-mortem examinations, ballistic evidence, and the frame-up (104). Many believe Poe had begun the science fiction genre (Binns 114). His first attempt was Hans Pfall, a story in which a man travels to the moon on a revolutionized balloon. Poe included actual facts into his story, mixing it with entirely false scientific â€Å"facts† to make the story believable (Meltzer 64). Poe’s innovations would later expand the modern science fiction genre. His vivid imagination veered off from scientific facts to create believable details to incorporate into his stories. These details anticipated later discoveries in both geography and astronomy (64). Science fiction writers like H. G. Wells and Jules Verne learned a great deal from Poe, which they integrated into their own writings. The belief that Poe began the science fiction genre may also be attributed to Poe’s complicated piece of writing which explained his own view of the universe. Eureka: A Prose Poem was published in March of 1848, and in it, Poe introduced his theory, a mixture of science, theology, and intuition. Poe theorized that: â€Å"God existed before matter. God created the first atoms. They scattered to create the universe. They are all trying to join back together, but when they do, they will be scattered again. † Poe’s theory caused an upset in society, as it was not Christian; however, others believed it to be brilliant, as it showed both insight and clear thought (Binns 100). Poe’s influence has not limited itself on just literature. Alfred Hitchcock, director of classic suspense films like Vertigo and Psycho has stated that Poe was the reason he began directing films (Burlingame 100). And, as Hitchcock has become an influential being himself, with many other directors using elements from his films, Poe has indirectly influenced them as well. Aside from literature and films, Poe’s name and lyrics have been used among many musicians. Thirty Seconds to Mars uses a quote from The Raven: â€Å"Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before. at the end of their video for Hurricane. The quote seems entirely fitting, as the video, which embraces some of Poe’s own elements, like vengeance and violence, is entirely surreal and evokes a sense of fear as they’re being pursued by masked men. However, they fight back, not letting the men take control of them, refusing to become martyrs. Like many of Poe’s writi ngs, the video seems ambiguous, open for many interpretations. Although Poe has long passed away, he still continues to influence today’s society. Writers will continue to use the elements he created in their stories. Film directors will continue to use his stylistic elements to portray a sense of Poe into their films. Musicians will continue to use Poe’s lyrics in their music, as well as use different aspects of his writings in their videos. Not only will Poe continue to influence them, but he will also continue to communicate with people through his works. People will continue to connect with Poe, just like previous generations have, through the themes of his writings, and through the understanding that Poe was just as misunderstood and criticized as the rest of us.

Definition Essay - Genre -- Definition Essay

Definition Essay – Genre "Genre," in the most generic definition, takes the meaning "kind; sort; style" (OED). Prior to the term's inception, the notion of genre in the study of media emerged in The Poetics, with Aristotle's discussion of the mode or manner of imitation in poetry. Of this Aristotle writes, "the medium being the same, and the objects [of imitation] the same, the poet may imitate by narration - in which case he can either take another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own person, unchanged - or he may present all his characters as living and moving before us" (Aristotle, 53). Here lies the distinction between epic, lyric, and drama, a distinction based solely in convention, the usage of the medium, independent of specific content (see also Narrative/Lyric/Drama). Yet Aristotle's genre binary of Tragedy and Comedy rests on some observation of the objects of imitation themselves: "Comedy aims at representing men as worse, Tragedy as better than in actual life" (Aristotle, 52). Later, in Section IV of The Poetics , Aristotle offers another method of generating this binary, based in historical observation (or some semblance of it). One final consideration, that of a work's purpose, arises in Aristotle's definition of Tragedy as "through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions," (Aristotle, 61). In this way The Poetics sketches out the basic framework of genre; yet this framework remains loose, since Aristotle establishes genre in terms of both convention and historical observation, and defines genre in terms of both convention and purpose. In Anatomy of Criticism (1957) Northrop Frye wrote, "We discover that the critical theory of genre is stuck precisely where Aristotle left ... ...ohns Hopkins University Press, 1979. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton University Press: Princeton. 1990. Lacey, Nick. Narrative and Genre: Key Concepts in Media Studies. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000. Liddell & Scott. An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon (Middle Liddell). London: Oxford University Press, 1968. MacLuhan, Marhsall. Understanding Media. Malmkjà ¦r, Kirsten. "Genre Analysis." The Linguistics Encyclopedia. Ed. Kirsten Malmkjà ¦r. New York: Routledge, 1991. Monaco, James. How to Read a Film. Oxford University Press: New York. 1981. Trowse, Nadeane. "The Exclusionary Potential of Genre: Margery Kempe's Transgressive Search for a Deniable Pulpit." The Rhetoric and Ideology of Genre. Cresskill, NJ: Hampston Press Inc., 2002. Warshow, Robert. The Immediate Experience. Harvard University Press: Cambridge. 2001.

Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Essay

Introduction One of the most important theoretical constructs in public administration is the politics-administration dichotomy. For more than a century, the politicsadministration dichotomy has been one of the most disreputable Issues in the field of public administration. The politics-administration dichotomy has had a strange history in public administration. It expands and contracts, rises and falls, but never to go away (Svara & Overeem, 2006: 121).At the heart of the public administration is relationship between administrators, on one hand, and politicians and the public on the other hand. The nature of that relationship and the proper role of political leaders and administrators in the administrative and political process have been the subject of considerable debate. In importance of the politics and administration, Waldo (1987) wrote: Nothing is more central in thinking about public administration than the nature and interrelations of politics and administration. Nor are the nature and interrelations of politics and administration matters only for academic theorizing. What is more important in the day-today, year-to-year, decade-to-decade operation of government than the ways in which politics and administration are conceptualized, rationalized ,and related one to the other. 1 2 PH.D student of public administration, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran. PH.D student of public administration, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran. 130 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate In this article we review history of the politics-administration dichotomy in five section. First, we examine classical conceptualizations of relationship between politics and administration in early author’s notes such as Wilson, Goodnow and Weber. We then argue that how the dichotomy model rise after founders by the scientific management and the principles of administration Movements. Then, we describe relationship between politics and administration after scientific management that in this time the politics-administration dichotomy rejected and emphasized on administrators policymaking role, specially under the New public administration (NPA).In next section we contend that how in 80 and 90 decades insisted on separation of policy and administration by the New Public Management (NPM) and the Reinventing Government (RG) Movements. In final section, we review new trends and views on debate that introduce the complementarily model of politics and administration. 1. Early views about the politics and administration relationship: Wilson, Goodnow and Weber Although the politics-administration dichotomy was not current as a theoretical construct until the late 1940s when it first became an important issue in the literature of public administration, most scholars now trace it to Woodrow Wilson. Wilson’s essay (1887) with title of â€Å"The Study of Administration† was not cited for many years after publication, but it is an exemplar of an stream of reformist thinking about government in the late nineteenth century. Wilson intended to shield administration from political interference, He wrote: The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics†¦. Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices (Wilson, 1887: 18). Wilson was concerned with both the corrupting and politicizing interference of party organizations in administrative affairs (Stillman, 1973). He was critical of the way Congress handled core legislative functions. He stated that Congress policy making was haphazard and its oversight was weak. When Wilson suggested the clearer differentiation of politics and administration, he was seeking to strengthen and redirect the former while protecting the latter (Svara, 1998: 52). In The Study of Administration, Wilson explained the division of functions of Government as follows: Public administration is detailed and systematic execution of public law†¦but the general laws†¦are obviously outside of and above administration. The broad plans of governmental action are not administrative; the detailed execution of such plans is administrative (Wilson, 1966: 372). ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 131 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate However, Wilson originally considered politics and administration as independent, but later embraced version of the dichotomy, which assumed that politics and administration interact to improve the organic state (Martin, 1988).In this time Wilson asserted that administrators would directly interpret and respond to public opinion. Therefore, they should be involved in the policy process and elected officials should be involved in the administrative process (Wilson, 1966: 375). Wilson’s change of mind can be explained that On the one hand, He admired the administration of European countries and proposed learning from them, which would not have been possible unless administration was distinctly separate from politics. On the other hand, his ultimate concern was to promote democracy, for he believed that the function of administration was to rescue democracy from its own excesses (Yang & Holzer, 2005: 113-4). Miewald (1984: 25-6) contend that this view of administrators was even clearer in Wilson’s later lectures that stated the real function of administration is not merely ministerial, but adaptive, guiding, discretionary. It must accommodate and realize the law in practice. In Miewald’s view, such administrators also were politicians and they must have the freedom to make ethical decisions. Van Riper (1984: 209) asserted that Wilson can not be blame or give credit for originating the dichotomy. In his view, Wilson like some of his contemporaries, simply wanted to advance the partisan (not political) neutrality of the civil service. Svara (1998: 52) argue that Wilson’s view of the administrative function was broad and not consistent with the dichotomy model as it came to be articulated later. He refer to this Wilson’s note that large powers and unhampered discretion seem to me the indispensable conditions of responsibility for administrators. The European version of the dichotomy was accepted by Frank Goodnow. In his book â€Å"Politics and Administration† (1900), Goodnow attacked to the executive, legislative, and judicial functions as three basic functions of government. Instead, he argued, there were two basic functions of government: the expression of the popular will and the execution of that will. The three traditional powers were derived from the two functions, and each of the three branches of government combined in different measure both the expression and the execution of the popular will. Goodnow argued that the function of politics was to express the state’s will and the function of administration was to execute the state’s will. He contented that it was analytically possible to separate administration from politics, but practically impossible toad the two functions to one branch of government (Goodnow, 1900: 9-13). Goodnow argued that certain aspects of administration were harmed by politics and should have been shielded from it. He argued: â€Å"political control over administrative functions is liable†¦to produce inefficient administration in that it makes administrative officers feel that what is demanded of them is not so much work that will improve their own department, as compliance with the behests of the political party† (Goodnow, 1900: 83). 132 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Svara (1998: 53) believed that in Goodnow’s writing there is a continuity between the political and administrative spheres, not a separation of the two, except as it applies to insulating administrative staff from partisan political inference. Because of Goodnow and other scholars at this time were interested in strengthening the relationship between administrators and elected officials rather than separating them. In sum, It should be recognized that Wilson and Goodnow aimed to eliminate the spoils system by freeing administration from political intervention and establishing a merit system in its place. They particularly opposed political appointments and patronage (Caiden, 1984: 53-7; Fry, 1989: 1036; Rohr, 2003: xiii-xvii; Rosenbloom, 2008: 58). They were more concerned with the improvement of administrative practice than with establishing a theoretical Construct (Stillman, 1973: 586). In other word, the dichotomy was not merely an analytical device for them, but first of all a practical imperative. To Wilson and Goodnow politics bore too strong an influence on public administration. Their’s aim was to take politics out of administration (Fry,  1989: 1036-7). In early twentieth century, Weber also arrived to a dichotomy between politics and administration, but from the opposite direction of Wilson and Goodnow. Weber argued that politics are too weak to curb administrative power, and that is the danger of Beamtenherrschaft (government by functionaries) that treat government. Therefore, he insisted that it was essential that administration stay out of politics (Weber, 1919/1968: 28). In â€Å"Politikals Beruf† Weber draws a sharp line between administrators and politicians: According to his proper vocation, the genuine civil servant†¦should not engage in politics, but administer, above all impartially†¦. Hence, he shall precisely not do what the politician, the leader as well as his following, must always and necessarily do, namely, fight. For partisanship, fight, passion are stadium are the politician’s element. (Weber, 1919/1968: 27-8) According to Weber, in the political controversies public administrators should operate above all impartially and remain politically neutral. In sum, It should be said that in founder’ s views it was partisan politics they wanted to keep apart from public administration rather than politics per se (Van Riper, 1984: 209; Ranney, 1949). Overeem (2005: 317) contended that in it’s classical conceptualizations the dichotomy between politics and administration implied a deep concern about the political neutrality of administrators. Whether attempts were made to take politics out of administration, as in the case of Wilson and Goodnow, or the other way around, as in the case of Weber, the aim was always to render administration impartial, an outsider to political controversy. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 133 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate 2. Toward the dichotomy: raise of the politics-administration dichotomy concept after founders  Yang and Holzer (2005: 114) believed that in deciphering Wilson and Goodnow, practitioners and academicians incorporated their own beliefs and reconstructed (or distorted) the two authors’ intentions. This misreading, they argued, is no surprise because in light of the Progressive context Openness to the separation of administration from politics was necessary if public administration was to emerge as an autonomous field, an urgent and legitimate attitude at a time when politics perversely intruded into administration, as exemplified by the spoils system. There is agreement that the idea of separation between politics and administration (Dichotomy) diverged from the earlier approaches by Wilson and Goodnow. Van Riper (1984: 209) argue that Wilson and Goodnow’s ideas do not correspond to a dichotomy. Waldo (1948: 108), Appleby (1949: 16), Golembiewski (1977: 9), and Caiden (1984: 60) also have same views. Rabin and Bowman (1984: 4) content that the distinction between politics and administration identified by Wilson and Goodnow had been converted by thirties authors into a dichotomy. Martin demonstrates the thinking of the thirties as follows: In the atmosphere provided by scientific management, a mechanistic concept of public administration came to prevail widely and in important circles. Administration was separated severely from the legislative body†¦. Politics was anathema-not the politics practiced by administrators, but the politics of the politicians (1952: 667). According to Caiden (1984: 60-1), in the thirties, there was a narrower conception of administration as being the management of organizations without regard to purpose, persons, or objectives, that is a generic science of management. Because of the purpose and methods of the two spheres were different, not only could administration be taken out of politics, but politics could be taken out of administration. Thus, the dichotomy model and the scientific practice of administration became the dominant modes of inquiry in this time. Demir and Nyhan (2008: 83) note that the politics-administration dichotomy sought to minimize politics in public administration by prescribing expertise, neutrality, and hierarchy. This values more than of all was insisted in the thirties. Van Riper (1984: 209-10) also argued that  between, 1910 and 1950, there did in the literature and practice of public administration a kind of distance between politics and administration. The need for a sharp division was justified to permit scientific methods to be established, and these methods both closed off administration to the untrained politician and at the same time made the administrator an expert who was above politics. In Gulick’s view, the politics and administration were differentiated not in terms of principle, but in terms of specialization and the division of labor. He noted: The reason for separating politics from administration is not that their combination is a violation of a principle of government. The 134 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate reason for insisting that the elected legislative and executive officials shall not interfere with the details of administration, and that the rank and file of the permanent administrators shall be permanent and skilled and shall not meddle with politics, is that this division of work makes use of specialization and appears to give better results than a system where such a differentiation does not exist. (cited by Waldo, 1948: 124) Summarizing such views, It should be said that the dichotomy model was not a direct idea identified by founders of public administration but a transformation of those ideas to make them part of the mechanistic approach that dominated in the twenties and thirties. The idea of strict separation (dichotomy model) was part of scientific management and the principles of administration that abandoned starting 1940 and replaced by ideas that emphasized interaction between politics and administration. 3. Interaction between policy and administration Although in the thirties some of authors such as Gaus, White, and Dimock had been arguing that administrators should have a role in policymaking, but During the 1940s the dichotomy dominated the field of public administration.  In the late 1940s and early 1950s, The politics-administration Dichotomy was increasingly criticized, came under attack and was rejected by many authors. Waldo (1948: 128) reviewed the extensive literature of the issue and concluded that any simple division of government into politics and administration is inadequate. He noted: As the 1930s advanced, doubt and dissent increased. In the 1940s refutation and repudiation came to the fore. By the 1950s it had become common to refer to the politics administration dichotomy as an outworn if not ludicrous creed (1987: 93).  We can see the most criticism in Appleby’s work. In â€Å"Policy and Administration† (1949), Appleby identified politics as everything having to do with the government and everything the government does. Thus, he concluded, administration could indeed not be no part of it (1949: 3). In Appleby’s view, it is impossible to draw a meaningful institutional distinction between politics or policy and administration. Any issue dealt with in the hierarchy of government is regarded as policy by those who operate below the level at which it is settled, and as administration by those operating above that level. If an issue becomes more controversial, it will rise in the hierarchy and, thus, will be seen as policy by a greater number of functionaries and as administration by a smaller number of functionaries. Appleby noted that in the perspective of an outside observer or the public administration theorist, policy and administration are treated together at every level (1949: 22). Thus, whether an issue is policy or administration becomes completely relative; policy and administration are only two sides of the same coin, ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 135 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate and there is no use in speaking about them as two distinct governmental functions. Appleby concluded that public administration is not autonomous, exclusive or isolated but is policy making nonetheless (1949: 170). He also  did draw a horizontal line between partisan politics and other forms of politics: Everything having to do with the government and everything the government does is political, for politics is the art and science of government. But in terms of mass, only a small part of politics is partisan (1949: 153).  In the 1960sthe role of administrators in policy-making process emphasized because of governments was increasingly troubled by complex social, economic, and security problems such as civil rights and poverty. This tendency was string then din the 1970s, when the Vietnam War, Watergate, and the energy crisis all had an impact on the balance between politics and administration. Because of the political nature of administration was highlighted, and the dichotomy denounced as false, many believed that administrators should actively apply their personal values and judgments to policy-making (Yang & Holzer, 2005: 116).One of reasons for rejecting separation of politics-administration was due ethical considerations that were evident in the New Public Administration (NPA). Frederickson (1976), with aware of the need of public organizations to administrative values such as efficiency and economy, emphasized that values such as equity, ethics, responsiveness, participation, and citizenship should be considered. He argued that this democratic values should be executed by administrators as responsible individuals. Administrators for the first time were asked to utilize their personal value judgments in public decision-making. Therefore, politics and administration could not to be separate of each other. 4. Return to the dichotomy: separation of policy and administration Some of authors believe that in the 1980s observe a return to the dichotomy with emphasize on privatization, decentralization and productivity (Uveges & Keller, 1997).This return continued in the 1990s under the Reinventing Government and the New Public Management (NPM) Movements. The Reinventing Government by emphasize on need to change administrator’s role from rowing to steering reincarnated the dichotomy in five ways: distinguishing between policy and management, extending it from the inner workings of government to the body politic, freeing administration from political controls in the form of red tape, redefining accountability, and specifying congressional action as politics and presidential action as management (Carroll, 1995).  Separation policymaking of policy-implementation also supported by the New Public Management. Hughes, one of the NPM proponents, notes: Public organizations do things; governments now want to know what they do; how well they do it; who is in charge and taking responsibility for results. The primary way of achieving this is to let the manager manage. Meaning that senior manager would themselves 136 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate be responsible for the achievement of results rather than being an administrator†¦. Disaggregate anion means splitting large department into different parts by setting up agencies to deliver services for a small policy department†¦. In some ways disaggregation could be seen as a reversion to the ideas of Woodrow Wilson with an organizational split between policy and administration in the division of policy departments and agencies (Hughes, 2003: 62-5). According to Christensen and Laegreid (2001: 96-101)The economic way of thinking in NPM points to an almost generally accepted axiom that it is more efficient to separate political and administrative functions than them integrated, as traditionally has been the case in most countries. The argument is that a division between these functions makes it clearer that they are different functions with different actors that is the politicians should set the goals and the civil servants implement the policies. They believed that One argument in favour of a sharper division between politics and administration is that an integrated solution makes politicians vulnerable to influence and pressure from civil servants, that civil servants threaten to invade the political sphere and that a stricer separation of functions makes it easier to control the civil service. The  Slogan let the managers manage, meaning discretion for managers and boards and not too much daily interference from the political leaders. The implication of this slogan is that chief executives are better at managing and therefore should be given the discretion and opportunity to do so, thereby reducing the burden on the political leadership and, through a sharp division between politics and administration, increase political control. Christensen and Laegreid argued that through devolution and contracting, NPM has sought to separate policy-making more clearly from policy administration and implementation. Policy –makers make policy and then delegate its implementation to managers and hold them accountable by contract. 5. Reconceptualization of dichotomy: two dichotomies In recent two decades, some of authors have critic to the classical conceptualization of the politics-administration dichotomy and attempt to reconceptualize it. Montjoy and Watson (1995: 232-3) Argue that some of Wilson’s statements certainly do advocate a separation of politics and administration, but what would mean in practice depends upon the definitions of the key terms. They point out that Wilson actually dealt with two different types of politics, one focused on partisanship and patronage, the other on policy making. Wilson Clearly wished to separate patronage politics from administration and Whether he advocated a dichotomy of policy making and administration is another issue. Regardless of what he wrote in The Study of Administration, the implications of his later work are unavoidable: administrators were politicians; they must have the freedom to make ethical decisions. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 137 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Montjoy and Watson believe that much of the confusion about politics and administration comes from Goodnow. They ask that was Goodnow’s dichotomy between politics and administration or between policy making and  administration, or were politics and policy making interchangeable for him? They offer an interpretation of Goodnow’s work based on the assumption of two dichotomies: a conceptual dichotomy between policy and administration and an institutional dichotomy between politics and administration. Montjoy and Watson assert that Goodnow used both â€Å"politics† and â€Å"policy† to refer to the expression of the popular will and â€Å"administration† to refer to the execution of that will. They ask Does politics mean patronage or does it mean policy making, or are the three concepts indistinguishable? They argue that the answer may lie in the definition of politics that Goodnow offers in the beginning of Politics and Administration: The act or vocation of guiding or influencing the policy of a government through the organization of a party among its citizens-including, therefore, not only the ethics of government, but more especially, and often to the exclusion of ethical principles, the art of influencing public opinion, attracting and marshalling voters, and obtaining and distributing public patronage, so far as the possession of offices may depend upon the political opinions or political services of individuals (Goodnow, 1900: 19). Montjoy and Watson content that this statement yields two important points. First, politics is definition ally limited to that part of the policy-making process, the act or vocation of guiding or influencing the policy of a government, which is accomplished through a particular method, the organization of a party among its citizens. Second, the application of that method explicitly includes patronage. They conceive of Goodnow’s expression of the public will as the entire policy-making process, including elections. Politics is that part of the process related to political parties. Therefore, they state, we are left with two dichotomies. The first is conceptual, dividing the functions of government into the expression of a will and the execution of that will. The second is operational, the doctrine that the filling of administrative offices (those primarily concerned with execution of the will) should not be used by candidates to attract support in the contest for electoral offices. Another argument about reconceptualization of the politics-administration dichotomy has been done by Overeem. Overeem (2005: 318-22) draw adisti nction between two types of politics: â€Å"partisan politics† and â€Å"policy politics† and state that in these two different types of politics, the stakes are different. In â€Å"partisan politics† the stakes are the powers to make decisions (votes and offices), whereas in â€Å"policy politics† the stakes are the contents of those decisions. Public administrators can have an involvement in the latter, but not in the former. In brief, public administrators cannot (and should not) be excluded from the kind of politics that is inherent to policy-making, but they can (and should) be excluded from politics that has a more partisan character. Overeem explain that in its mid-twentieth century reconceptualization, the politics-administration dichotomy was not so much 138 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate thickened in its intensity as it was broadened in its scope. The Dichotomy’s critics suggested that its intention had been to keep administration not merely out of (partisan) politics, but out of the making of policy as well. Often, the dichotomy’s critics took what had been conceptualized as a contrast between politics and administration for the parallel, alternative, and occasionally synonymous dichotomy between policy and administration. Indeed, the two dichotomies were more and more taken as synonyms. Overeem conclude that public administration contrasts with two dichotomy: 1) politics-administration dichotomy and 2) policyadministration dichotomy. He assert that later should be rejected but former should be accepted. 6. New trends: complementarity of politics and administration We will finish our argument with focus on a new model about politics and administration relationship that named the Complementarity Model. Svara (2001: 179-80) explain that the complementarity Model of politics and administration is based on the premise that elected officials and administrators join together in the common pursuit of sound governance. Complementarity entails separate parts, but parts that come together in a mutually supportive way. Complementarity stresses interdependence along with distinct roles;  compliance along with independence; respect for political control along with a commitment to shape and implement policy in ways that promote the public interest; deference to elected incumbents along with adherence to the law and support for fair electoral competition; and appreciation of politics along with support for professional standards. Svara believe that Complementarity recognizes the interdependence and reciprocal influence between elected officials and administrators. Elected officials and administrators maintain distinct roles based on their unique perspectives and values and the differences in their formal positions, but the functions they perform necessarily overlap. The figure of bellow show different parts of Complementarity Model. The first part is the political dominance that results from high political control and low administrative independence is the condition that has been attacked by reformers from the Progressive Era to the present because of their concern for loss of administrative competence and the potential for political corruption. The second part is Bureaucratic autonomy that is feared by critics of the administrative state, who argue that administrators are self-controlling and advance agency interests rather than the public interest. In both situations, Svara explain, either the level of control or independence is extreme, and the key reciprocating value is not present: Politicians do not respect administrators, or administrators are not committed to accountability. The third part is the combination of low control and low independence, producing a â€Å"live and let live† attitude among officials. Svara believe that the dichotomy model, which is based on totally separate spheres, would logically fit in this category. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 139 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Elected Officials: degree of control Low High Stalemate or laissez-fair Political Dominance Low Complementarity Administrators: level of independence High Political respect administrative Competence and commitment Administrators are Committed to accountability and responsiveness Bureaucratic autonomy Figure1. Understanding the interaction between Politicians and Administrator (Svara, 2001, 180) The final part that is the largest space in figure is the zone of complementarity. Svara argue that most interactions among officials reflect  complementarity, and evidence from local governments in 14 countries supports this generalization. Although in earlier times there was greater emphasis on subordination of administrators linked to greater reliance on hierarchy as an organizational principle, interdependence and reciprocal influence are common and longstanding. A condition that presumably was common earlier in the century, high accountability and moderate independence, would fit in the upper-left corner of the complementarity quadrant, whereas recent experience with moderate control and extensive administrative initiative would be in the lower-right corner. Svara assert that Complementarity Model entails ongoing interaction, reciprocal influence, and mutual deference between elected officials and administrators. Administrators help to shape policy, and they give it specific content and meaning in the process of implementation. Elected officials oversee implementation, probe specific complaints about poor performance, and attempt to correct problems with performance through fine-tuning. Conclusions ` The purpose of this article was to review literature of the politicsadministration dichotomy. In order to, the author’s view about issue on different time periods was argued. The issue of politics and administration is one of the most important issues in public administration as Denhardt introduce dates one of the five main issues in public administration (Denhardt & Baker, 2007: 121). Therefore, that is not to be false if we say that the politics-administration dichotomy is the important part of the public administration identity. Thus, awareness of its history can be effective in properly understand the field of public administration and rightly recognition its problems. There are a number of reasons why the dichotomy idea has persisted. It is convenient to explain the division of roles in terms of total separation because it is 140 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate easier to explain than a model based on sharing roles, particularly since the separation model does not limit the actual policy contributions of administrators in practice. At the same time, the dichotomy idea shields administrators from scrutiny and serves the interests of elected officials who can pass responsibility for unpopular decisions to administrators (Peters, 1995: 177-8). In founders view of public administration, politics and administration should be separated. But, it must be notice that their intention was to remove political interferes of public administration practices. It can be say that founders never clearly rejected the role of public administrators in policy making. They simultaneously emphasized on separation and insulation of administrators from political interference, on one hand, and interaction and incorporation of administrative contributions in the design and the implementation of public policy, on the other hand. Wilson and Goodnow as founding fathers of the field never advocated the dichotomy attributed to them (Golembiewski, 1977; Rabin and Bowman, 1984: 4; Rohr, 1986: 31; Van Riper, 1984: 209-10), It was after them and under the scientific management and the principles of administration movements that separation policy-making of policyimplementation favored and accepted. Under this movements the strict version of separation was formed. After the classic public administration and under the new public administration approach and because of need to values such as equity, ethics, responsiveness, participation, and citizenship the role of administrators in policymaking was emphasized. In this time, Because of the political nature of administration was highlighted, and the dichotomy denounced as false, many believed that administrators should actively apply their personal values and judgments to policy-making. In 80 and 90 decades under the Reinventing Government and the New Public Management Movements observe a return to the dichotomy. Reinventing Government by introduce rowing and steering metaphor emphasized on Separation of policy-making and policy-implementation by freeing  administration from political controls and distinguishing between policy and management. NPM, also, through devolution and contracting has sought to separate policy-making more clearly from policy administration and implementation. Policy-makers make policy and then delegate its implementation to managers and hold them accountable by contract. Nowadays, it is widely regarded both unfeasible and undesirable to keep politics and administration apart and their relationship is presently depicted as complementary rather than dichotomous (Frederickson & Smith, 2003: 15-40; Riggs, 1987; Svara, 1998, 1999, and 2001; Svara & Brunet, 2003). Svarapresent the idea of complementarity as a conceptual framework that includes differentiation along with interaction as an alternative to the dichotomy. The Complementarity model is based on conditions for maintaining the distinction between politics and administration, while at the same time describing how the two are intermixed and prescribing values for preserving this complex relationship. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 141 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. APPLEBY, P., 1949, Policy and Administration, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. CAIDEN, G. 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